Beyond Belief: 10 Shockingly Strict Ancient Customs That Defined Civilizations

Step into a time machine with us and prepare to have your perceptions of “normal” shattered. From the brutal training grounds of ancient Sparta to the intricate death rituals of Egypt, ancient customs were often far more strict, bizarre, and even terrifying than anything we can imagine today. These aren’t just dusty historical facts; they’re windows into the human psyche, revealing how societies enforced order, demonstrated power, and grappled with the mysteries of life and death. You might think our modern world is complicated, but wait until you dive into the extreme traditions that shaped entire civilizations. Get ready to explore a past where survival, status, and spiritual beliefs led to practices that will undoubtedly leave you speechless.

Sparta’s Agoge: The Ultimate Warrior Factory

Imagine being taken from your family at the tender age of seven, not for school, but for a life dedicated solely to war. This was the reality for Spartan boys entering the agoge, a state-sponsored training program designed to forge the most formidable soldiers in the ancient world. It wasn’t just strict; it was an exercise in extreme deprivation and psychological conditioning.

Here’s what Spartan boys endured in the agoge:

• Forced Austerity: They were forbidden from wearing clothes, even in the harsh winters, to harden their bodies against the elements. Comfort was a weakness, so sleeping on soft beds was out of the question; they slept on reeds they gathered themselves. Meat, a staple for many, was denied, forcing them into near-starvation.
• Brutal Discipline: Beatings were a daily occurrence, not necessarily as punishment for wrongdoing, but as a test of endurance and a way to instill absolute obedience. Pain was a lesson, a constant companion meant to prepare them for the rigors of battle.
• Survival Skills and Stealth: Young Spartans were actively encouraged to steal food. If caught, however, the punishment wasn’t for the theft itself, but for the incompetence of being caught. This taught them stealth, resourcefulness, and the harsh realities of survival. Failure to adapt often meant severe beatings or even execution, with estimates suggesting a staggering 25% mortality rate among trainees.
• Psychological Scars: While the agoge undeniably produced some of history’s most disciplined and feared warriors, it also left indelible psychological scars. The extreme conditions, constant violence, and ritualized abuse (sometimes even sexual) by older boys created a generation of individuals who knew little beyond hardship and warfare.
• Unwavering Loyalty: The entire system was geared towards fostering an absolute loyalty to the state above all else – family, individual desires, or personal well-being. This was a society where the individual existed solely for the collective strength of Sparta.

The legacy of the agoge is complex. It showcases the incredible human capacity for endurance and discipline, but also the terrifying lengths to which a society might go to achieve military supremacy, at an immense human cost.

Egyptian Mummification: A 70-Day Journey to Immortality

For the ancient Egyptians, death was not an end but a doorway. To pass through it successfully and achieve immortality, one’s physical body had to be preserved. This belief gave rise to the elaborate and incredibly strict practice of mummification, a process that underscored the Egyptians’ profound understanding of anatomy and preservation techniques.

The arduous journey to the afterlife involved:

• An Intensive 70-Day Process: Mummification was not a quick task. It was a meticulous, 70-day ritual, each step carefully timed and performed by specialized priests and embalmers. This lengthy duration was believed to mirror the journey of the sun god Ra through the underworld.
• A Luxury for the Elite: Such an intricate process came at an exorbitant cost. For an average worker, it could be the equivalent of 10 years of wages. This meant that only the wealthiest and most powerful – pharaohs, nobles, and high-ranking officials – could afford the full, elaborate procedure. The poor might receive a simpler, less effective burial, emphasizing the stark social stratification even in death.
• The Removal and Preservation of Organs: The first crucial step involved the careful removal of all internal organs, except for the heart, which was believed to be the seat of intelligence and emotion. The brain, considered less important, was often extracted through the nostrils using a long hook. The lungs, stomach, intestines, and liver were then individually preserved and stored in canopic jars, each lid representing one of the four sons of Horus.
• Dehydration with Natron: The body cavity was rinsed with wine and spices, then packed with natron salt, a natural desiccant, to thoroughly dry out the tissues and prevent decomposition. The body would remain covered in natron for about 40 days, slowly turning it into a preserved shell.
• Wrapping in Linen: Once fully dehydrated, the body was meticulously wrapped in hundreds of yards of linen bandages, often layered with resin to create a protective shell. Amulets and charms were frequently placed between the layers to provide magical protection on the journey to the afterlife.
• Essential for the Soul’s Journey: The Egyptians believed that without a preserved body, the ka (life force) and ba (personality) would have no vessel to return to, trapping the soul in the dangerous underworld, the Duat. This made mummification not just a custom but an absolute necessity for eternal life.
• Elaborate Tombs and Grave Goods: This belief spurred the construction of monumental tombs like those in the Valley of the Kings. These weren’t just resting places; they were veritable treasure houses meant to supply the deceased with everything they needed in the afterlife. Tutankhamun’s tomb, for example, famously contained over 5,000 artifacts, from chariots and furniture to food and gold, all intended to serve him eternally. Pharaohs were even sometimes buried with hundreds of servants (or effigies of them) to attend to their every need.

Mummification stands as a powerful testament to the Egyptian obsession with the afterlife and their unwavering belief in the continuation of existence beyond death, shaping their entire civilization’s artistic, architectural, and religious endeavors.

Aztec Human Sacrifice: Appeasing the Gods with Blood

Few ancient customs evoke as much visceral shock and awe as the widespread practice of human sacrifice in Aztec society. For the Aztecs, human sacrifice wasn’t merely a ritual; it was a state religion, a sacred duty, and the very mechanism that kept their world from plunging into darkness.

The chilling reality of Aztec sacrifice included:

• A State Religion: The Aztecs believed that their gods, particularly the sun god Huitzilopochtli, required human blood to sustain them. Without this continuous offering, the sun would cease its journey across the sky, and the world would end. This belief was deeply ingrained in their cosmology and daily life.
• Staggering Numbers: While exact figures are debated by historians, it’s estimated that the Aztecs sacrificed an average of 20,000 people annually. During major festivals or dedications, such as the reconsecration of the Templo Mayor in Tenochtitlán, these numbers could skyrocket into the tens of thousands within a few days. The Spanish conquistador Bernal Díaz del Castillo, witnessing a sacrifice, famously described it as “the most hideous thing I ever saw.”
• The Heart of the World: The grandest and most frequent sacrifices took place atop the Templo Mayor in Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital. Victims, often prisoners of war, were led up the temple steps, laid upon a sacrificial stone, and their hearts were dramatically removed while they were still alive, then offered to the gods. The bodies would then often be cast down the temple steps.
• Maintaining Cosmic Balance: Beyond Huitzilopochtli, other gods also demanded tribute. Tlaloc, the rain god, sometimes received child sacrifices to ensure bountiful harvests, a practice deeply distressing even to observers within Aztec society. Each sacrifice was seen as a vital contribution to maintaining the delicate balance of the cosmos.
• Social and Political Control: While primarily religious, the practice also served a powerful sociopolitical function. The terror inspired by the rituals helped maintain control over conquered peoples and reinforced the power of the Aztec elite and priestly class. It was a potent display of dominance and a warning to any who might defy the empire.

The Aztec approach to life and death, centered around such a brutal form of appeasement, offers a stark reminder of the diverse and often extreme ways human civilizations have sought to understand and influence the forces they believed governed their existence.

Chinese Foot Binding: A Millennia of Pain for Status

Few customs illustrate the cruel intersection of beauty standards, social status, and gender roles as vividly as Chinese foot binding. Originating around the 10th century and persisting for over a millennium, this practice intentionally deformed women’s feet, turning them into a symbol of desirability and an agonizing source of disability.

The painful reality of foot binding:

• The “Lotus Feet” Ideal: The goal was to achieve “lotus feet,” tiny, arched feet that were deemed the epitome of feminine beauty and grace. The ideal size was around three inches, a grotesque modification that rendered walking excruciatingly difficult, if not impossible, without assistance.
• A Brutal Process: Starting typically between the ages of 4 and 9, before the bones were fully developed, a girl’s feet were tightly bound with long strips of cloth. The toes were bent underneath the foot, and the arch was broken, forcing the foot into a severe V-shape. The binding was excruciatingly tight, constantly reapplied and tightened over the years, often causing the toenails to grow into the sole, leading to infections and gangrene.
• Lifelong Disability and Pain: The consequences were severe:
  • Immense Pain: The constant pressure, broken bones, and infected wounds meant perpetual pain. Many women couldn’t walk without crutches or assistance.
  • Limited Mobility: Bound feet severely restricted mobility, essentially confining women to their homes, reinforcing the societal expectation of women as domestic figures.
  • Health Complications: Infections, gangrene, and blood poisoning were common, sometimes leading to death.
  • Social Status and Marriageability: Despite the suffering, having bound feet was a powerful symbol of status and wealth. It indicated that a woman didn’t need to work, and it dramatically increased her marriage prospects. Families of unbound daughters risked social ostracism and difficulty finding suitable husbands for them.
• Cultural Entrenchment: The practice was so deeply ingrained that it was passed down through generations. Mothers, despite having suffered themselves, felt compelled to bind their daughters’ feet to ensure their social standing and future.
• Eventual Decline: While various reformers and intellectuals spoke out against foot binding over the centuries, it wasn’t until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with growing Western influence and nationalistic reforms, that serious efforts were made to abolish it. It was officially banned in 1912, though it persisted in some rural areas for decades longer, leaving behind a generation of women forever marked by this ancient custom.

Foot binding is a chilling testament to how cultural ideals of beauty and status can lead to immense human suffering, highlighting the pressures individuals, especially women, faced to conform to rigid societal expectations.

Roman Gladiatorial Games: Bloodsport in the Colosseum

The roar of 50,000 spectators, the clash of steel, the scent of blood and fear – this was the reality of the Roman gladiatorial games, an entertainment spectacle that captivated the Roman Empire for centuries. While we might view it as incredibly barbaric, for Romans, it was a thrilling, often symbolic, and deeply ingrained part of their culture.

The brutal life and death of a gladiator:

• Entertainment on a Grand Scale: Gladiatorial contests were massive public spectacles, often held for days or even weeks during religious festivals, military victories, or to celebrate the emperor’s generosity. The Colosseum, Rome’s most famous amphitheater, could seat 50,000 to 80,000 people and was specifically designed for these elaborate shows, featuring complex mechanisms to raise animals and scenery.
• Who Were the Gladiators? The vast majority were not willing participants. They were primarily:
  • Slaves: Often bought specifically for gladiatorial training.
  • Prisoners of War: Captured enemies, forced to fight for the entertainment of their conquerors.
  • Criminals: Sentenced to the arena as a form of capital punishment or forced labor.
  • Volunteers (Rare): A small number of free men, often from impoverished backgrounds, would volunteer, seeking fame, fortune, or a way to escape debt.
• The Ludi – Gladiator Schools: Gladiators were trained in special schools called ludi. Here, they learned various combat techniques, specializing in different weapon sets (e.g., net and trident for a retiarius, sword and shield for a murmillo). They were also taught how to perform for the crowd, how to make a fight exciting, and how to die with dignity.
• A Life of Brutality and Discipline: Despite the potential for fame, a gladiator’s life was incredibly harsh. They lived under strict discipline, often in harsh conditions, and faced constant danger. The risk of death was ever-present; during Emperor Titus’s reign alone, over 400 gladiators died in the arena in a single series of games.
• Fame and Marketability: Successful gladiators could indeed become celebrities, adored by the crowds. They were given dramatic names like ‘Spartacus’ or ‘Hercules’ to boost their appeal and create compelling narratives for the audience. Their image adorned mosaics, lamps, and trinkets, and some even earned enough to buy their freedom. However, this was the exception, not the rule.
• The Spectacle of Death: The games served multiple purposes: to entertain, to demonstrate Roman power, to reinforce social hierarchies (the emperor or noble who sponsored the games displayed his wealth), and to provide a vivid illustration of Roman virtues like courage and stoicism in the face of death. For many, the sight of a gladiator bravely facing death was a moral lesson.

The gladiatorial games remain a powerful, albeit disturbing, symbol of Roman power and their complex relationship with violence, entertainment, and the value of human life.

Medieval Europe’s Trial by Combat: God’s Judgment in a Duel

In an age before sophisticated forensic science or highly developed legal systems, how did people settle disputes, especially when evidence was scarce? In medieval Europe, one of the most dramatic and dangerous methods was the trial by combat. This wasn’t just a street brawl; it was a legally recognized institution, often steeped in religious belief.

When faith met force in the courtroom-arena:

• Settling Disputes with Steel: If a defendant could not prove their innocence through oaths, witnesses, or other forms of evidence, they had the option to challenge their accuser to a duel. The outcome of this combat was believed to be God’s direct judgment, revealing the truth of the matter.
• A Divine Verdict: The core principle behind trial by combat was the belief that God would intervene on behalf of the innocent. It was a form of “ordeal,” a divine test where the righteous would be granted strength and victory, while the guilty would falter.
• Legally Recognized: This practice was not merely tolerated; it was enshrined in law in many parts of Europe, including England, where it remained a legal option until the 14th century. Historical records show over 100 recorded duels fought in England in the 13th century alone, a testament to its prevalence.
• The Role of Champions: Not everyone was expected to fight for themselves. Women, the elderly, the disabled, or those deemed physically incapable could appoint a champion to fight on their behalf. This often meant hiring a skilled warrior, which introduced an element of wealth into the equation.
• A Flawed System: While based on faith, the practical reality of trial by combat often favored the physically stronger, better-trained, or better-equipped combatant. A wealthy person could hire a superior champion, effectively buying a “just” outcome. This inherent bias eventually led to increasing skepticism.
• Decline and Influence: As legal systems evolved and the emphasis shifted towards rational inquiry and evidence, trial by combat began to wane. It was officially abolished in England in 1381 (though an antiquated form technically remained on the books until 1819!). Despite its flaws, the system played a role in the development of modern legal concepts, particularly the idea of due process and the need for a mechanism to resolve intractable disputes.

Trial by combat highlights a fascinating stage in legal history, where justice was sought not just through human reason but through divine intervention, revealing the deep intertwining of faith, law, and violence in the medieval mind.

Ancient Greek Pederasty: Education, Virtue, and Controversy

The concept of pederasty in ancient Greece is one of the most challenging for modern sensibilities to understand, yet it was a formalized social institution with specific cultural roles and expectations. It involved a mentorship relationship between an older man (erastes, the lover/mentor) and a younger male (eromenos, the beloved/mentee), which often included sexual activity, especially in contexts like Sparta and Athens.

Understanding a complex ancient social custom:

• A Mentorship Framework: At its heart, ancient Greek pederasty was framed as an educational relationship. The erastes was expected to guide the eromenos in matters of philosophy, politics, ethics, and social conduct. It was a rite of passage, a way for younger men to be initiated into adult society and learn the values necessary to become a virtuous citizen.
• Cultivating Virtue: In city-states like Sparta, pederasty was believed to cultivate courage, loyalty, and other martial virtues. The bond between the erastes and eromenos was thought to inspire greater bravery in battle, as men would fight more fiercely to impress or protect their beloved.
• Social Context: It existed within a very different social and moral framework than our own. Same-sex relationships were not viewed with the same stigma as in many later cultures. While women were largely confined to the domestic sphere, male companionship and bonding were highly valued in public life, including military, political, and philosophical circles.
• Specific Rules and Expectations: The relationship was often formalized and governed by social norms. For instance, the erastes was expected to maintain an active role, pursuing the eromenos, while the eromenos was expected to be more passive, and the relationship was typically meant to end when the younger man reached adulthood.
• Internal Criticism and Controversy: Even in ancient times, the practice was not universally accepted without debate. Philosophers like Plato, while acknowledging its existence, sometimes critiqued its more carnal aspects, arguing that it could lead to corruption and distraction from higher intellectual pursuits. He advocated for a more purely intellectual and spiritual form of mentorship.
• Decline in the Hellenistic Period: The practice became less common and less socially formalized during the Hellenistic period, as Greek society began to be influenced by more conservative Roman values and different philosophical currents gained prominence.

Ancient Greek pederasty serves as a stark reminder of how dramatically societal norms and ethical frameworks can differ across cultures and historical periods, pushing us to critically examine our own assumptions about human relationships and social structures.

Japan’s Seppuku: The Ultimate Act of Honor

For the samurai of medieval Japan, honor was paramount, often valued above life itself. This profound reverence for honor gave rise to seppuku, a ritualistic form of suicide that allowed a samurai to die with dignity, atone for failures, or avoid capture by enemies. It was not merely self-inflicted death but a highly formalized and deeply symbolic act.

The code of honor and the deadly ritual:

• A Choice for Honor: The samurai code of Bushido demanded unwavering loyalty, courage, and integrity. If a samurai failed in his duties, brought shame upon himself or his lord, or faced inevitable defeat in battle, seppuku offered an honorable alternative to disgrace, execution, or capture. It was a way to reclaim honor and express genuine remorse.
• Ritualistic Precision: Seppuku was a highly structured ritual, often performed in front of witnesses. The samurai would typically bathe, dress in white kimono, and compose a death poem, expressing his final thoughts. He would then be presented with a tanto (short dagger).
• The Act Itself: The samurai would use the tanto to cut open his abdomen, typically from left to right, then often upwards. This was an incredibly painful and gruesome act, symbolizing the baring of one’s soul and true intentions.
• The Kaishakunin: To ensure a swift and dignified end, a trusted friend or retainer, known as the kaishakunin, would stand by. After the samurai performed the initial cut, the kaishakunin would deliver a precise, swift decapitation, ending the suffering and completing the ritual. This required immense skill and precision to avoid further dishonor.
• Examples of Seppuku: One famous historical instance is the death of Ishida Mitsunari in 1600 after his defeat at the Battle of Sekigahara, a pivotal moment in Japanese history. Another well-known case is the “47 Ronin,” who famously committed seppuku after avenging their master, following the dictates of the shogunate.
• Beyond Medieval Japan: While primarily a samurai practice, the ethos behind seppuku continued to resonate in Japanese society. Tragically, the practice was later adopted by some Japanese imperial army officers during World War II, who chose seppuku rather than surrender, demonstrating its enduring cultural significance even in modern times.

Seppuku offers a poignant glimpse into a culture where spiritual values, personal integrity, and an absolute commitment to honor dictated the very end of life, illustrating the extraordinary sacrifices individuals were willing to make for their beliefs.

Ancient India’s Caste System: A Legacy of Strict Social Division

The caste system of ancient India stands as one of history’s most rigid and enduring forms of social stratification, profoundly shaping every aspect of life for millions. While legally abolished in 1950, its social effects persist, reminding us of the deep impact of inherited status and institutionalized discrimination.

Life within the unbreakable caste structure:

• A Hierarchical Structure: The caste system (Varna) divided Hindu society into four main classes:
  1. Brahmins: Priests, scholars, and teachers – at the top.
  2. Kshatriyas: Rulers and warriors.
  3. Vaishyas: Farmers, merchants, and artisans.
  4. Shudras: Laborers and servants. Below these four main varnas were the Dalits, also known as “untouchables,” who were considered outside the system entirely.
• Born Into Your Destiny: One’s caste was determined at birth and was immutable. There was no social mobility between castes; you were born into it, married within it, and died within it. This fixed status dictated your occupation, social interactions, and even your spiritual prospects.
• The Plight of the Dalits: The Dalits suffered the most extreme forms of discrimination. They were considered “impure” and “polluting,” leading to severe restrictions:
  • Exclusion from Sacred Spaces: Forbidden from entering temples.
  • Segregation in Public Life: Barred from using public water sources (wells, rivers) used by higher castes.
  • Physical Separation: Often forced to live in segregated villages or neighborhoods and forbidden from even walking on the same paths as higher castes, lest their shadow or presence “pollute” them.
  • Degrading Occupations: Forced to perform the most undesirable and “unclean” jobs, such as cleaning sewers, tanning leather, or handling dead animals.
• Severe Social Ostracization: Any perceived transgression by a Dalit, even an accidental touch or glance, could lead to severe punishment, including beatings, public humiliation, or social boycotts. The system instilled a deep fear and resentment across societal layers.
• British Influence and Modern Reforms: While the British colonial government introduced some reforms, the caste system remained deeply entrenched. After India’s independence, the Constitution of India legally abolished untouchability in 1950 and implemented affirmative action policies (reservations) to promote the upliftment of Scheduled Castes and Tribes (which include Dalits).
• Enduring Legacy: Despite legal prohibition, the caste system’s social effects, including discrimination and prejudice, continue to persist in modern India, particularly in rural areas, demonstrating the incredible difficulty of eradicating deeply ingrained societal structures and biases.

The caste system provides a powerful historical example of how social hierarchies, when formalized and religiously sanctioned, can lead to centuries of profound inequality and human suffering, leaving a lasting impact on national identity and social justice efforts.

Mesopotamia’s Code of Hammurabi: An Eye for an Eye

Roughly 3,800 years ago, King Hammurabi of Babylon presented his people with a groundbreaking legal framework: the Code of Hammurabi. Carved into a massive stone stele, this collection of 282 laws is one of the oldest surviving legal texts in history, famous for its stern, retributive justice encapsulated by the principle of “an eye for an eye.”

Justice, Babylonian style:

• A Foundational Legal Document: The Code of Hammurabi was revolutionary for its time. It provided a comprehensive set of laws intended to govern almost every aspect of Babylonian life, from commerce and property rights to family matters and criminal offenses. It was publicly displayed, making the laws accessible (at least in theory) to all, signifying a shift towards a more transparent and standardized legal system.
• The Principle of Lex Talionis (Eye for an Eye): The most famous aspect of the code is its clear emphasis on retribution. If you caused an injury to another, you would suffer a similar injury in return. For example, if a builder constructed a house that collapsed and killed the owner, the builder would be put to death. If it killed the owner’s son, the builder’s son would be put to death.
• Class-Based Justice: While seemingly egalitarian with “an eye for an eye,” the code was not applied equally to all. Punishments often varied based on the social status of both the offender and the victim. If a free man struck another free man, he might pay a fine. If he struck a commoner, the fine would be less. If he struck a slave, the fine was even smaller. If a commoner struck a free man, the punishment would be more severe. This highlights the rigid class structure of Babylonian society.
• Comprehensive Coverage: The code delved into a vast array of scenarios:
  • Property Disputes: Laws concerning theft, damage to crops, and fraudulent dealings.
  • Family Law: Regulations for marriage, divorce, inheritance, and the rights of women and children. For instance, women who committed adultery could be punished by drowning.
  • Professional Responsibility: Strict rules for doctors, builders, and farmers, holding them accountable for their work, sometimes with severe penalties.
• Influence on Future Legal Systems: Despite its harshness and class-based distinctions, the Code of Hammurabi was incredibly influential. Its concepts of legal precedent, written laws, and defined punishments laid groundwork for future legal codes, including the Mosaic Law (found in the Hebrew Bible) and later, the Justinian Code of the Byzantine Empire. It represents a crucial step in humanity’s quest for order and justice through codified law.

The Code of Hammurabi provides a stark window into an ancient civilization’s attempt to establish social order and justice through a legal system that was both revolutionary for its time and brutally uncompromising in its application. It stands as a testament to the enduring human desire to define right and wrong and enforce consequences.

Conclusion: Echoes of Extremes from the Past

As we journey back from these ten incredibly strict and often brutal ancient customs, you can’t help but feel a profound sense of awe—and perhaps relief—at how much our societies have evolved. From the Spartan agoge that transformed boys into unfeeling warriors, to the Aztec altars where human hearts were offered to the gods, to the excruciating pain of Chinese foot binding, these practices underscore the immense power of belief systems, social pressure, and the desperate struggle for survival or dominance.

What can you take away from these chilling glimpses into the past?

• The Power of Belief: Each custom, no matter how cruel it seems now, was rooted in a deeply held belief system—whether it was the pursuit of immortality, the appeasement of deities, the attainment of honor, or the maintenance of social order. These beliefs dictated reality for millions, shaping their lives and deaths in ways almost incomprehensible to us.
• The Cost of Conformity: Many of these practices illustrate the extreme lengths to which individuals were compelled to conform to societal norms, often at the cost of immense suffering, disability, or even life itself. It highlights the often-unseen pressures that even you face today, albeit in much milder forms.
• The Evolution of Humanity: While we might shake our heads in disbelief, these customs also remind us of the slow, often painful, but undeniable progress of human civilization. Our modern values of individual rights, universal justice, and compassion stand in stark contrast to many of these ancient traditions.
• Understanding Our Present: By understanding the extremes of the past, we gain a deeper appreciation for the present and the principles we now hold dear. It encourages us to critically examine our own societal norms and ask ourselves: What unspoken rules or values are we upholding today that future generations might find equally bizarre or even cruel?

These ancient customs are more than just historical curiosities; they are powerful narratives that force us to confront the breadth of human experience, the fragility of life, and the enduring quest for meaning and order in a complex world. They are a vivid reminder that the human story is one of continuous evolution, marked by both incredible cruelty and inspiring progress.

This article is part of our history series. Subscribe to our YouTube channel for video versions of our content.